Purple vegetables and tubers may have superior anti-diabetic properties
By Clarissa Brincat on February 28, 2023 — Fact checked by Hilary Guite, FFPH, MRCGP
Share on PinterestCertain types of purple vegetables and tubers may be more effective against type 2 diabetes. Anna Blazhuk/Getty ImagesAnthocyanins are natural compounds responsible for the red-orange and blue-violet colors in many fruits, vegetables, and tubers.Research has shown that anthocyanins have beneficial effects on the gut microbiome, energy metabolism, and inflammation.
A recent overview of the literature highlights how purple vegetables and tubers may help prevent and manage type 2 diabetes by their action on energy metabolism, inflammation and gut microbiota.
The research also indicates that acylated anthocyanins—which are found in vegetables such as red cabbage and purple sweet potato—may be superior to nonacylated anthocyanins—found in blackberries and blackcurrants—in terms of anti-diabetic properties.
According to the CDC, over 37 million Americans—about 1 in 10Trusted Source individuals—have diabetes, and approximately 90-95% of them have type 2 diabetes.
Normally, a hormone called insulin moves glucose (sugar) from the blood into cells, where it’s used for energy. But in type 2 diabetes, the body doesn’t use or produce insulin properly, and glucose builds up in the blood instead of being used by cells.
If diabetes is not managed properly, it can cause many health problems over time, including cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, nerve damage, eye damage and vision loss, kidney disease and foot problems.
While various factors can increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, including a family history of diabetes, research has shown that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables can delay or prevent the onset of diabetes and enhance the well-being of individuals with diabetes-related health problems.
The benefits associated with fruits and vegetables are attributed to their high concentrations of polyphenols. One particular class of polyphenols—anthocyanins—are responsible for giving red-orange to blue-violet colors in plants.
Studies in the United StatesTrusted Source and FinlandTrusted Source have shown that consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods, particularly berries, reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes.
Many studies have been carried out to better understand the anti-diabetic properties of anthocyanins.
A new review article published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry summarizes the effects of anthocyanins on the gut microbiome, energy metabolism and inflammation, with a special focus on acylated anthocyanins.
Acylated vs. nonacylated anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are divided into 2 categories based on their molecular structure: acylated and nonacylated.
Acylated anthocyanins have a chemical group called an “acyl group” (made up of a carbon atom and an oxygen atom double-bonded to each other, with a single bond to another carbon atom), which nonacylated anthocyanins lack.
Compared to nonacylated anthocyanins, acylated anthocyanins are more stable and more resistant to digestion. For this reason, they are not digested and absorbed in the stomach, and upper intestine, and they pass through to the colon, where they are degraded extensively by gut microorganisms.
Elderberry, blackberry, and blackcurrant mainly contain nonacylated anthocyanins, while acylated anthocyanins are found in red radish, purple corn, black carrot, red cabbage and purple sweet potato.
Studies on the two types of anthocyanins differ in design and analysis methods, making it difficult to draw clear conclusions about the differences in biological activity.
However, Dr. Baoru Yang, professor of food sciences at the University of Turku, and her coauthors on the review suggest that acylated anthocyanins may be superior to nonacylated anthocyanins in terms of anti-diabetic properties.
Dr. Taylor C. Wallace, adjunct professor in the Department of Nutrition and Food Studies at George Mason University and principal and CEO at the Think Healthy Group, told Medical News Today that it is important to consider other differences in the sources of acylated and nonacylated anthocyanins.
“[Acylated anthocyanin-rich] purple potatoes also contain a lot of resistant starch and other compounds that may contribute to their anti-diabetic effects. [Nonacylated anthocyanin-rich] berries contain a significant amount of natural sugar that may negate some of the anthocyanin’s anti-diabetic effects.”
— Dr. Taylor Wallace
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Anthocyanins promote gut health
Researchers have studied the effects of various anthocyanins on bacteria living in the gut (or gut microbiome) using animal models.
In a mouse study, nonacylated anthocyanins from black rice increased the abundance of certain gut bacteria, including Akkermansia muciniphila. A. muciniphila has been shownTrusted Source to stimulate insulin secretion and lead to improved glucose metabolism in mice with type 2 diabetes.
Acylated anthocyanins from various sources, such as purple sweet potato and Concord grape, have also been shown to affect the gut microbiome by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria, and increasing the production of short-chain fatty acidsTrusted Source, which are beneficial for gut health and glycemic control.
Dr. Wallace told MNT that the majority of studies to date are not sufficiently sophisticated or validated “to really know what happens to anthocyanins in the GI tract.”
“Purified radio labeled non-acylated and acylated anthocyanins should be administered in humans to really know if there is a difference (this has not been done to my knowledge as it is very expensive),” he said.
Anthocyanins lower blood glucose levels
One of the pharmacological effects of anthocyanins is the inhibition of carbohydrate digestion enzymes, which leads to a reduction in blood glucose levels. Additionally, research has shown that anthocyanins activate glucose and lipid metabolism pathways in the liver and muscles, which also contribute to lowering blood glucose levels.
In one study, of diabetic mice allowed to feed freely for 2 weeks, in those supplemented with mulberry fruit extract containing nonacylated anthocyanins blood glucose levels were about 30% lower than non-supplemented mice at the end of the study.
Similarly, another study found that feeding acylated anthocyanin extracts from purple sweet potato for 4 weeks at a daily dose of 500 mg/kg body weight to diabetic mice led to a significant reduction in blood glucose and improvement in insulin insensitivity in the treatment groups.
The blood glucose-lowering effects of anthocyanins have been attributed to anthocyanin activation of AMPK (AMP-activating protein kinase) and PI3K/AKT (phosphoinositide 3 kinase/protein kinase B) pathways, which are crucial for glucose and lipid metabolism.
However, Dr. Wallace pointed out that most of the studies cited in the review used anthocyanin-rich extracts, rather than purified anthocyanins, so other polyphenols and flavonoids present in the extracts could have had synergistic effects.
Most flavonoids can also affect carbohydrate absorption by inhibiting carbohydrate-digesting enzymes and binding to sugars, thus preventing their absorption.
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Anthocyanins lower inflammation
Eating carbohydrates or fat triggers a short-term inflammatory immune response. Normally, the inflammation goes away quickly, but if it doesn’t, it can become chronic. Chronic inflammation can harm the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas, which can lead to obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
In studies with diabetic mice, dietary supplementation of both nonacylated and acylated anthocyanins reduced inflammation. This reduction in inflammation reduces insulin resistance and improves glucose metabolism in diabetes.
Several studies have shown that anthocyanins exert an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the NF-κB inflammation pathwayTrusted Source. Other studies have shown that nonacylated anthocyanins activate the Nrf2 pathwayTrusted Source, which helps produce antioxidant proteins to protect against inflammation or injury-induced oxidative damage.
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Key takeaways
Recent findings on the anti-diabetic effects of anthocyanins suggest that eating more anthocyanin-rich fruits and vegetables can be beneficial for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.
Although it is challenging to draw clear conclusions about the differences in biological activity between the two types of anthocyanins due to differences in study design and analysis methods across studies, Dr. Yang and coauthors conclude that acylated anthocyanins may have more potential benefits in regulating energy metabolism, inflammation, and gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes compared to nonacylated anthocyanins.
Other researchers, however, believe that it is too early to reach definitive conclusions.
“I’m not aware of any studies that directly compare purified acylated and non-acylated anthocyanins. I see this paper as ‘hypothesis generating,’ which would be published to justify a [g]rant to study this exact question. At this point I don’t think there is enough evidence to make any firm conclusions or public health statements,” said Dr. Wallace.
In their review of current research, Dr. Baoru Yang, professor of food sciences at the University of Turku, and her coauthors also acknowledge that “the gut microbiota-modulating effect of acylated anthocyanins deserves further study in different models as well as different physiological and pathological conditions.”
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HONEST NUTRITION
What do we really know about antioxidants?
Most people have probably heard that antioxidant-rich foods and supplements can benefit health, but many may not fully understand what antioxidants are or how they function in the body.
By Jillian Kubala, MS, RD on January 20, 2021 — Fact checked by Alexandra Sanfins, Ph.D.
This series of Special Features takes an in-depth look at the science behind some of the most debated nutrition-related topics, weighing in on the facts and debunking the myths.
Share on PinterestDesign by Diego SabogalAccording to an article in biomoleculesTrusted Source, the word antioxidant is one of the most confusing scientific terms that scientific literature does not clearly defineTrusted Source.
This article takes an in-depth look at antioxidants, explaining what they are and how they affect health.
What are antioxidants?
Antioxidants are compounds that reduce or inhibit cellular damage through their ability to neutralize molecules called free radicals.
Free radicals are molecules that have one or more unpaired electrons in their outer orbit, making them unstable and highly reactive. The body creates them through normal endogenous metabolic processes, including energy production.
The body also produces them in response to environmental and lifestyle factors, such as sun exposure, smoking, alcohol consumption, and more.
Antioxidants inhibit a process called oxidation, which generates free radicals that leads to cellular damage. Antioxidants safely interact with free radicals, neutralizing them before they can cause damage to proteins, lipids, and DNA.
Oxidative stress occurs when there are too many free radicals in the body. This imbalance can occur due to increased production of free radicals or decreased antioxidant defenses.
Free radicals play an important role in the normal physiological functioning of the body and contribute to a person’s health. However, when the body produces an excess of free radicals, it can increase a person’s disease risk.
For example, many chronic diseases, including heart disease and cancer, have links to progressive damage from free radicals.
Antioxidant defense systems
Cells have antioxidant defense systems that help keep free radical production in check.
For example, cells contain antioxidant enzymes that help reduce free radical levels. The primary antioxidant enzymes in the cells includeTrusted Source superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GRx).
These antioxidant enzymes are known as first-line defense antioxidants. They help regulate free radical levels by neutralizing both free radicals and other molecules that have the potential to become free radicals.
The body also produces metabolic antioxidants through metabolism. These include lipoic acid, glutathione, coenzyme Q10, melatonin, uric acid, L-arginine, metal-chelating proteins, bilirubin, and transferrin.
However, there are some antioxidants that the body cannot produce, which means a person must consume them through food or by taking dietary supplements. These nutrient antioxidants include carotenoids, antioxidant vitamins, including vitamins C and E, selenium, manganese, zinc, flavonoids, and omega-3 and omega-6 fats.
Dietary and supplemental antioxidants tend to receive the most attention within the nutrition world because consuming a diet rich in antioxidants can help boost the body’s antioxidant defenses.
Antioxidants in food vs. supplements
Unraveling the intricacies of dietary antioxidants can be challenging and confusing. Many antioxidants occur naturally in food, and countless other compounds that claim to boost the body’s antioxidant defenses are available as dietary supplements.
Foods such as fruits, vegetables, spices, and nuts contain thousands of different compounds that act as antioxidants.
For example, grapes, apples, pears, cherries, and berries contain a group of plant chemicals called polyphenol antioxidantsTrusted Source. There are over 8,000 different polyphenol antioxidants in nature.
Brightly colored fruits and vegetables also contain high concentrations of carotenoidsTrusted Source, another class of antioxidants.
However, these natural food-derived antioxidants are very different from those found in dietary supplements.
For example, there are many forms of vitamin E, including synthetic vitamin E and natural vitamin E, such as alpha-tocopherol esters. All these forms of vitamin E may have different effects on the body.
This may be why studies investigating the potential health benefits of vitamin E supplements have produced conflicting resultsTrusted Source.
Additionally, supplements typically contain concentrated dosesTrusted Source of isolated antioxidant compounds that can impact health differently than antioxidant-rich foods.
Although antioxidant-rich foods are extremely nutritious and important for health, taking a very high-dose antioxidant supplement may not suit everyone and may even be harmful to some people.
Can antioxidants harm health?
It is clear that a diet concentrated in antioxidant-rich foods, especially fruits and vegetables, is beneficial for overall health.
However, the relationship between supplemental antioxidants and disease prevention is less clear.
Many studies have shown that taking supplements that contain concentrated doses of antioxidants may benefit certain aspects of health.
For example, researchers have linked antioxidant supplements — including omega-3 fatsTrusted Source, curcuminTrusted Source, seleniumTrusted Source, resveratrolTrusted Source, and vitamin CTrusted Source — with various beneficial health outcomes.
However, although certain antioxidants may deliver health benefits when a person takes them for a specific reason, this does not mean that taking supplemental antioxidants is always safe or necessary.
SomeTrusted Source researchTrusted Source suggests that taking certain antioxidant supplements may interfereTrusted Source with the body’s natural signaling pathways and adverselyTrusted Source impact healthTrusted Source.
What’s more, studies have shown that high-dose antioxidant supplements may be harmful in certain populations.
For example, scientists have linked vitamin E supplementation with an increased riskTrusted Source of prostate cancer in healthy men. Similarly, studies have linked beta carotene supplementation with an increased riskTrusted Source of lung cancer in smokers.
Research has also found no clear benefit of antioxidant supplements on disease risk.
Some evidenceTrusted Source suggests that high-dose supplementation with vitamin E, vitamin A, and beta-carotene may increase mortality risk.
This suggests that taking supplements of certain antioxidants may disrupt the body’s natural antioxidant defense network and even harm health when taken inappropriately.
Conversely, research has consistently linked antioxidant-rich diets high in vegetables, fruits, spices, and other natural sources of antioxidants with decreased disease riskTrusted Source and have found no associations with any adverse health outcomes.
For this reason, experts suggest that people should focus on consuming antioxidants through the foods they eat. They do not recommend that people take high-dose antioxidants supplements unless specifically recommended by a healthcare provider.
The bottom line
There is no doubt that consuming a diet high in antioxidant-rich foods is beneficial for health and may help prevent disease development.
However, researchers do not routinely recommend antioxidant supplements for health promotion because some evidence suggests that taking high-dose antioxidant supplements may be harmful to a person’s overall health.
It is best to avoid high-dose antioxidant supplements unless a trusted healthcare provider prescribes or recommends them. The best way to take in antioxidants is through foods and beverages, such as vegetables, fruits, nuts, fish, spices, and tea.
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